Introduction

Processors based on AMD64 architecture – such as Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Athlon 64 FX, Opteron, Sempron and Phenom – have two external busses. One is used on the communication between the CPU and the memory, and it is simply called “memory bus”, and the other is used on the communication between the CPU and all other PC components thru the motherboard chipset and is called HyperTransport – being an I/O (Input/Output) bus. In this tutorial we will be explaining how the HyperTransport bus works and clarifying common mistakes people assume about this bus. On all other processors – including AMD processors not based on AMD64 architecture, like the original Athlon, Athlon XP and Sempron socket 462 processors – the CPU has only one external bus, also known as front side bus (FSB). On this approach the external bus carries both memory and I/O communications. Theoretically the architecture used on AMD64 processors is better, since in theory they can communicate with the memory and with other PC components (like the video card) at the same time, something impossible on other processors, as there is only one datapath out of the processor. On Figure 1 you can see how an AMD64 processor communicates to the external world. The “bridge” chip is the motherboard chipset. Depending on the chipset you can have one or two chips. On two-chip solutions all peripherals (such as hard disk drives, add-on cards, sound cards, etc) are connected to the second chip (this second chip is called south bridge, not shown on Figure 1), while on single-chip solutions everything is connected to this single chip.

Pentium Dual Core is a Core 2 Duo (or a Core Duo, in the case of the mobile versions) CPU with a lower internal clock rate and less L2 memory cache. In this tutorial you will learn the main technical specifications of this processor and a table with all Pentium Duo Core released so far.

Who thought that with the release of the Core microarchitecture and Core 2 Duo, Core 2 Extreme and Core Quad Intel would retire their Pentium trademark was completely wrong. The legendary Pentium trademark is back with the release of the Pentium Dual Core.

Pentium Dual Core for desktops is a dual-core processor based on Core microarchitecture, the same one used by Core 2 Duo. Watch out to not make confusion between Pentium Dual Core and Pentium D. Even though both are dual-core CPUs, Pentium D is based on Intel’s previous microarchitecture, called Netburst, the same one used by Pentium 4.

Pentium Dual Core uses a 1 MB L2 memory cache (2 MB for the 45 nm processors), which is shared between the two CPU cores (Intel calls this implementation as “Smart Cache”), and works externally at 800 MHz (200 MHz transferring four data per clock cycle).

In contrast Core 2 Duo processors have at least 2 MB L2 memory cache – with several 4 MB models – and, even thought there are models running externally at 800 MHz, the vast majority uses a 1,066 MHz external bus, with newer models running externally at 1,333 MHz.

The mobile version of Pentium Dual Core is based on Pentium M’s microarchitecture, which Core microarchitecture was based on. Since these processors are dual-core Pentium M’s manufactured under 65 nm process, they are in fact Core Duo processors with less L2 memory cache – the original Core Duo has 2 MB L2 memory cache, while Pentium Dual Core has only 1 MB. The majority of Core Duo processors run externally at 667 MHz, while all mobile versions of Pentium Dual Core run externally at 533 MHz.

Here is a summary of the main Pentium Dual Core family features:

• Core microarchitecture (desktop version) or Pentium M (mobile version)
• 32 KB instruction L1 memory cache and 32 KB data L1 memory cache for each core.
• Dual-core technology
• 65 nm or 45 nm manufacturing process.
• Socket 775.
• 800 MHz (200 MHz transferring four data per clock cycle) external bus on desktop versions or 533 MHz (133 MHz transferring four data per clock cycle) on mobile versions.
• 1 MB (on 65 nm models) or 2 MB (on 45 nm models) unified L2 memory cache.
• Intel EM64T Technology.
• SSE3 instruction set
• No SSE4.1 instruction set support, not even on 45 nm models (45-nm Core 2 Duo CPUs support this feature).
• Execute Disable Bit.
• Intelligent Power Capability.
• Enhanced SpeedStep Technology.

Let’s now talk about Pentium Dual Core models launched so far.

We listed on the table below all Pentium Dual Core models released to date. Models starting with the letter “E” are for desktops while models starting with the letter “T” are targeted to laptops. As we explained on the previous page, desktop models are based on Core 2 Duo, while laptop models are based on Core Duo. TDP stands for Thermal Dissipation Power and indicates the CPU thermal dissipation. Model sSpec Internal Clock External Clock Tech. L2 Cache TDP Voltage Max. Temp. (º C) E5200 SLAY7 2.5 GHz 800 MHz 45 nm 2 MB 65 W 0.85 V - 1.3625 V 74.1 E2220 SLA8W 2.4 GHz 800 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 65 W 0.85 V - 1.5 V 73.3 E2200 SLA8X 2.2 GHz 800 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 65 W 1.162 V - 1.312 V 73.3 E2180 SLA8Y 2.0 GHz 800 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 65 W 1.162 V - 1.312 V 73.2 E2160 SLA9Z 1.8 GHz 800 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 65 W 0.85 V - 1.5 V 73.2 E2160 SLA8Z 1.8 GHz 800 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 65 W 1.162 V - 1.312 V 73.2 E2160 SLA3H 1.8 GHz 800 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 65 W 1.162 V - 1.312 V 61.4 E2140 SLALS 1.6 GHz 800 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 65 W 0.85 V - 1.5 V 73.2 E2140 SLA3J 1.6 GHz 800 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 65 W 1.162 V - 1.312 V 61.4 E2140 SLA93 1.6 GHz 800 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 65 W 1.162 V - 1.312 V 61.4 T2130 SL9VZ 1.86 GHz 533 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 31 W - 100 T2390 SLA4H 1.86 GHz 533 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 35 W 1.075 V - 1.175 V 100 T2370 SLA4J 1.73 GHz 533 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 35 W 1.075 V - 1.175 V 100 T2080 SL9VY 1.73 GHz 533 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 31 W - 100 T2330 SLA4K 1.6 GHz 533 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 35 W 1.075 V - 1.175 V 100 T2060 SL9VX 1.6 GHz 533 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 31 W - 100 T2310 SLAEC 1.46 GHz 533 MHz 65 nm 1 MB 35 W 1.075 V - 1.175 V 100

Introduction

Since its launch, in April, 1998, Intel Celeron processor has been going through some changes. The name Celeron is used by Intel to denominate its low cost line of processors. In fact, Celeron is an economic version of Intel top processors. In other words, Celeron is a simplified version of Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4 or Core 2 Duo, with some of its features being reduced or removed. Celeron models already launched and top processors in which they are based on are listed below: Model Codename Based on Cores L1 Cache L2 Cache Technology External Bus Socket Celeron SEPP Convington Pentium II Deschutes core 1 32 KB - 0.25 µm 66 MHz Slot 1 Celeron A Mendocino Pentium II Deschutes core 1 32 KB 128 KB 0.25 µm 66 MHz Slot 1 Celeron PPGA Mendocino Pentium II Deschutes core 1 32 KB 128 KB 0.25 µm or 0.18 µm 66 MHz Socket 370 Celeron Coppermine Coppermine Pentium III Coppermine core 1 32 KB 128 KB 0.18 µm 66MHz or 100MHz Socket 370 Celeron Tualatin Tualatin Pentium III Tualatin core 1 32 KB 256 KB 0.13 µm 100 MHz Socket 370 Celeron Willamette Willamette Pentium 4 Willamette core 1 8 KB 128 KB 0.18 µm 400 MHz Socket 478 Celeron Northwood Northwood Pentium 4 Northwood core 1 8 KB 128 KB 0.13 µm 400 MHz Socket 478 Celeron D Prescott Pentium 4 Prescott core 1 16 KB 256 KB 90 nm or 65 nm 533 MHz Socket 478 or Socket 775 Celeron 400 Series Conroe-L Core 2 Duo 1 64 KB 512 KB 65 nm 800 MHz Socket 775 Celeron E1000 Series Allendale Core 2 Duo 2 64 KB 512 KB 65 nm 800 MHz Socket 775 Celeron distinguishes itself from Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4 or Core 2 Duo basically in three aspects: L2 memory cache size Internal clock External bus clock Because of these differences Celeron is cheaper and of low-performance, compared to the Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4 and Core 2 Duo processors, thus it fits well to domestic users market or to those who don’t need great power in the computer. source: hardwaresecrets.com

Signals in the real world are analog: light, sound, you name it. So, real-world signals must be converted into digital, using a circuit called ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter), before they can be manipulated by digital equipment. In this tutorial we will give an in-depth explanation about analog-to-digital conversion yet keeping a very easy to follow language.

When you scan a picture with a scanner what the scanner is doing is an analog-to-digital conversion: it is taking the analog information provided by the picture (light) and converting into digital.

When you record your voice or use a VoIP solution on your computer, you are using an analog-to-digital converter to convert your voice, which is analog, into digital information.

Digital information isn’t only restricted to computers. When you talk on the phone, for example, your voice is converted into digital (at the central office switch, if you use an analog line, or at you home, if you use a digital line like ISDN or DSL), since your voice is analog and the communication between the phone switches is done digitally.

When an audio CD is recorded at a studio, once again analog-to-digital is taking place, converting sounds into digital numbers that will be stored on the disc.

Whenever we need the analog signal back, the opposite conversion – digital-to-analog, which is done by a circuit called DAC, Digital-to-Analog Converter – is needed. When you play an audio CD, what the CD player is doing is reading digital information stored on the disc and converting it back to analog so you can hear the music. When you are talking on the phone, a digital-to-analog conversion is also taking place (at the central office switch, if you use an analog line, or at you home, if you use a digital line like ISDN or DSL), so you can hear what the other party is saying.

But, why digital? There are some basic reasons to use digital signals instead of analog, noise being the number one.

Since analog signals can assume any value, noise is interpreted as being part of the original signal. For example, when you listen to a LP record, you hear noise because the needle is analog and thus don’t know the difference from the music originally recorded from the noise inserted by dust or cracks.

Digital systems, on the other hand, can only understand two numbers, zero and one. Anything different from this is discarded. That’s why you won’t hear any unwanted noise when listening to an audio CD, even if you played it thousands of times before (actually depending on your sound system you can hear some noise when playing audio CDs, but this noise, called white noise, isn’t produced by the CD media, but by the CD player, amplifier or cables used, and is introduced in the audio path after the digital data found on the CD was already converted back to analog – as you see, the problem lies in the analog part).

Another advantage of digital system against analog is the data compression capability. Since the digital counterpart of an analog signal is just a bunch of numbers, these numbers can be compressed, just like you would compress a Word file using WinZip to shrink down the file size, for example. The compression can be done to save storage space or bandwidth. On all the examples given so far no compression is used. We will talk again about it when discussing surround sound.

source:  hardwaresecrets.com

High Definition Audio, also known as HD Audio or by its codename, Azalia, is an audio standard created by Intel to be used on their chipsets, i.e. it is a standard for high-quality on-board audio. In this tutorial we will explain more about this feature.

All Intel chipsets based on PCI Express bus – like i915 and i925 – support High Definition Audio. This standard provides two new features: multi-streaming, which allows more than one audio signal to be sent to a different audio device – for example, to watch a DVD on your living room transferring the audio thru a wireless network while talking thru a voice over IP solution at the same time on your desktop in your office – and high quality audio.

Before HD Audio was released, on-board high quality audio was only available if your motherboard had a separated high quality audio controller – like Envy24 from VIA, for example. With HD Audio technology, the south bridge of the chipset produces high-quality audio itself, without the need of a separated controller chip, what would make the motherboard more expensive. The south bridge only needs an external codec (coder/decoder) chip to make the needed digital/analog and analog/digital conversions. This kind of chip is inexpensive compared to a “full” controller chip. One example of codec compatible with Intel’s HD Audio is C-Media 9880.

High Definition Audio provides 7.1 surround audio with 192 KHz sampling rate and up to 32-bit resolution. Other audio solutions embedded on the chipset support a maximum of 48 KHz sampling rate and 20-bit resolution, even when they support 5.1 configuration (“6-channel surround audio”).

Intel is promoting High Defition Audio together with Dolby Laboratories, who created three audio “levels” for PCs using HD Audio: Dolby Sound Room, Dolby Home Theater and Dolby Master Studio, which are targeted to the entry-level user, to the mid-range user and to the high-end user, respectively. The features of these “levels” are the following:

• Dolby Sound Room: 2-channel audio supporting Dolby Virtual Speaker and Dolby Head Phones technologies. These two technologies simulate 5.1 audio using only 2 speakers, based on Dolby Pro Logic II technology. It has a signal-to-noise ratio of at least 75 dB.
• Dolby Home Theater: 6-channel (5.1) audio with a signal-to-noise ratio of at least 85 dB, based on Dolby Pro Logic II technology.
• Dolby Master Studio: 8-channel (7.1) audio with a signal-to-noise ratio of at leas 95 dB, based on Dolby Pro Logic IIx and Dolby Digital Live technologies.

Something really interesting about Dolby Pro Logic II technology it that it allows the system to use 5.1 audio (or 7.1 audio with Dolby Pro Logic IIx) even if the audio source has only two channels (as it happens with CDs, for example), thru the use of a series of filters.

Digital Live technology is the streaming technology from Dolby Labs, used to transfer music that is stored in the PC to a receiver located in your living room thru wireless LAN, for example.

The idea behind these “levels” is to make it easy for the user to know what is the on-board audio quality from the motherboard he (or she) is buying, simply paying attention to what Dolby logo is printed on the box (Sound Room, Home Theater or Master Studio).

We’ve listened to some demos and we were really impressed by Dolby Pro Logic IIx technology, which separates CD audio (which only has 2 channels) into eight channels (7.1 format). The result is really impressive, it look like if the CD was originally recorded using 7.1 audio.

source:  hardwaresecrets.com